Published in Vadose Zone Journal 3:1-5 (2004)
© 2004 Soil Science Society of America
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
SPECIAL SECTION: UNDERSTANDING SUBSURFACE FLOW AND TRANSPORT PROCESSES AT THE IDAHO NATIONAL ENGINEERING & ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY (INEEL) SITE |
The Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory Site
An Overview of Site History and Soil and Groundwater Contamination Issues
Robert J. Lenhard*,
Alan K. Yonk,
Phillip M. Wright and
James D. Herzog
Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID 83415
Correspondence: * Corresponding author (lenhrj{at}inel.gov).
Received for publication 24 November 2003.
 |
ABSTRACT
|
|---|
In a remote site in eastern Idaho, now known as the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL) Site, the U.S. Government established a facility to test-fire naval gunnery during World War II. The mission after the war switched to development and demonstration of nuclear technology. For more than 50 yr, the site has been devoted to nuclear energy research. Because of the remote location of the site west of Idaho Falls, ID, wastes containing radioactive and hazardous materials were disposed to the subsurface. It was felt that any disposed materials would not travel downward through the vadose zone, which is 100 to 300 m thick, to the underlying Snake River Aquifer. However, some materials have traveled through the thick vadose zone and contaminated the aquifer. Other wastes were injected directly into the aquifer. To provide a general background for papers in this special issue of Vadose Zone Journal on research at the INEEL, we give a brief historical perspective of work conducted at the INEEL Site west of Idaho Falls and associated subsurface contamination issues. We furthermore give an overview of the research papers presented in this special issue.
Abbreviations: AEC, Atomic Energy Commission • ATR, Advanced Test Reactor • DOE-EM, USDOE Office of Environmental Management • EBR-1, Experimental Breeder Reactor-1 • ICPP, Idaho Chemical Processing Plant • INEEL, Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory • INEL, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory • INTEC, Idaho Nuclear Technology and Engineering Center • MTR, Materials Test Reactor • NPG, Naval Proving Ground • NRTS, National Reactor Testing Station • RWMC, Radioactive Waste Management Complex • STR, Submarine Thermal Reactor • WIPP, Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
|
INTRODUCTION
|
|---|
THE SITE CURRENTLY called the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL) has had several names and missions for the U.S. Government over time. Today, facilities of the INEEL are located both in the town of Idaho Falls, ID and on a 2350-km2 (890-mi2) site located approximately 40 km (25 mi) west of Idaho Falls (Fig. 1)
. In this paper, we commonly refer to the site west of Idaho Falls as the Idaho Site, the INEEL Site, or simply the Site. The INEEL is a multiprogram research and development institution and is one of the national laboratories operated by the USDOE. To better understand the subsurface science research and work being done at the INEEL, we will give a brief outline of the history of the site and the various missions it has served. We will also briefly outline issues regarding the subsurface contamination at the INEEL, which has resulted from disposal of radioactive and chemical wastes. Finally, we will give an overview of the papers in this special issue. A general historical background of the INEEL is important to help readers understand the subsurface issues discussed in other papers in this special issue. The historical information about the INEEL Site largely comes from the book Proving the Principle by Susan Stacy (2000). Through the years, many individuals have been involved in work at the site involving many missions. There was a reasonable effort to minimize subsurface contamination problems. However, the understanding of subsurface flow and contaminant transport phenomena, and of proper disposal techniques, was not sufficient to prevent subsurface contamination. Even today, our understanding and our ability to accurately predict subsurface contaminant flow and transport, especially in the vadose zone, are severely limited.
|
HISTORY
|
|---|
Located in a remote arid area in eastern Idaho on the northeast-trending Snake River Plain, the U.S. Government established a site to test-fire gunnery that was being refurbished at the Naval Ordnance Plant in Pocatello, ID. The U.S. Navy withdrew approximately 715 km2 (271 mi2) of land from the public domain west of the town Idaho Falls, ID. The site, called the Naval Proving Ground (NPG), was dedicated on 2 Aug. 1943. Workers at the NPG were very active during World War II test-firing ordnance, practicing high-altitude bombing techniques, and conducting detonation research with the U.S. Army. In a major test on 29 Aug. 1945, more than 100000 kg (250000 lbs) of TNT were detonated at the NPG. Ordnance and detonation research continued at the site following the war, but at a slower pace.
In August 1946, the U.S. Congress passed the Atomic Energy Act, which transferred control of atomic weapons facilities from the military to a new civilian agency, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). Three years later in early 1949, the NPG was chosen to be a center for scientific experiments involving nuclear reactors. With this new mission, the name of the site was changed to the National Reactor Testing Station (NRTS). The AEC designated the Idaho Operations field office to manage the NRTS, and Idaho Falls was chosen as the host city. Four projects were initially planned to be developed: an experimental breeder reactor designed and developed by Dr. Walter Zinn, a physicist working with Dr. Enrico Fermi; a material testing reactor; a chemical processing plant; and a submarine thermal reactor. The area of the NRTS was expanded to help limit public access to facilities and to provide a buffer area in which population growth could be controlled. The NRTS grew to more than twice the size of the NPG. Because of additional land withdrawals and purchases, the present size of the site west of Idaho Falls (Fig. 1) is approximately 2350 km2 (890 mi2).
In 1951, the first nuclear reactor at the NRTS became operational. Called the Experimental Breeder Reactor-1 (EBR-1), it operated from 1951 to 1963. The EBR-1 is recognized as being the world's first nuclear reactor to supply electricity from nuclear energy on 20 Dec. 1951. In a proclamation still visible today, Dr. Zinn wrote on a wall inside the facility, "Electricity was first generated here from Atomic Energy." On 26 Aug. 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson dedicated the EBR-1 as a National Historic Landmark. The facility is currently open for public tours during the summer months.
Other notable reactors built at the NRTS were the Materials Test Reactor (MTR) in 1952, the Submarine Thermal Reactor (STR) in 1953, and the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) in 1967. The MTR was the second reactor at the NRTS and a key component of the AEC's post-war reactor development program. The STR was a key foundation for the U.S. nuclear navy. It was the prototype for the reactor that powered the U.S.S. Nautilus. Work done at the STR proved the principle and feasibility of atomic energy for ship propulsion. Later, the Navy used the STR to train reactor operators for submarines and surface ships. The ATR, which is still in operation, is a materials testing reactor that can yield data in weeks or months that would normally take years in ordinary reactors. It has a unique four-lobed design in which numerous experiments can be conducted simultaneously at a variety of flux rates. The ATR is also used to produce radioisotopes for medical, industrial, and research purposes. To date, 52 nuclear reactors have operated at one time or another at the Idaho Site.
In addition to the reactors at the NRTS, a chemical-processing plant was built to reprocess spent nuclear fuels. Its primary mission was to extract 235U. The plant was called the Idaho Chemical Processing Plant (ICPP) and operated from 1953 to 1988. Thereafter, the ICPP has been used only intermittently. More than 31000 kg of U were recovered from spent fuel, which came from a variety of sources. In addition to recovering 235U, other radioactive elements were recovered for private industry and nuclear facilities. The ICPP reprocessed spent nuclear fuel from NRTS, the U.S. Navy, Savannah River, Hanford, Oak Ridge, Los Alamos, and other locations. The largest single source of spent fuel was from Navy nuclear propulsion reactors.
The specific mission and programs at the Idaho Site continued to change with time and with U.S. Government administrations. In 1974, the NRTS was renamed the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL). Later, the INEL was renamed the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL) largely because Senator Dirk Kempthorne, now Governor of Idaho, felt that the Idaho Site's future lay in being a leader in solving difficult environmental problems. In 1977, President Carter created the USDOE, and the INEL became a USDOE-operated National Laboratory.
|
SOIL AND GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
|
|---|
All operations at the Idaho Site required an adequate supply of water. In the early years of the NRTS, the subsurface was largely unknown. The USGS began studies of the subsurface and the Snake River Aquifer. There were reports by geologists of an underground "river of water" flowing between the mountains northwest of the site and the Snake River, which is southeast of the site. Fortunately, finding water in the subsurface at the Idaho Site was not difficult. To some, the underground river seemed more like an underground ocean. When local people asked about possible groundwater contamination from the operations, the response was that wastewater returned to the desert would be clean when it reached the aquifer. It was believed that the vadose zone would filter or retard substantially all contaminants from downward-moving rain and snow melt before they reached the aquifer, and that any contaminants reaching the aquifer would be diluted to the point of insignificance within the aquifer.
In the early days, the AEC allowed each facility to dispose of their waste as they felt best. For disposal of solid wastes, the Idaho Operations Field Office decided to use a landfill. Because the Site received only about 20 cm of precipitation per year, it was believed that contaminants in the landfill would be unlikely to be leached from the solid waste and transported to the underlying Snake River Aquifer. The waste site chosen, thereafter called the NRTS Burial Ground, had 5 to 7 m of sediment above fractured basalt. The depth to groundwater at the Burial Ground exceeded 175 m (570 ft). It was also felt that the clay-sized particles in the sediments would act as absorption sites for any mobile contaminants. Solid wastes, including low-level radioactive wastes, were being deposited to trenches by 1952. Beginning in 1954, nuclear weapons related waste from the Rocky Flats Fuel Fabricating Facility was shipped to the NRTS Burial Ground. Because of differences in composition between wastes from Rocky Flats and wastes generated from projects within the NRTS, both transuranic and fission- or activation-product wastes were buried in the Burial Ground, sometimes in the same pit or trench. Transuranic waste is radioactive waste (>100 nCi g–1) that contains 
-emitting species with an atomic number greater than U and with a half-life exceeding 20 yr. Organic solvent (chlorinated hydrocarbon) waste from Rocky Flats, which was mixed with silicates to form a gel-like substance and placed in barrels, was also disposed at the NRTS Burial Ground. Because of cost considerations, sometimes the barrels were discharged to the Burial Ground in bulk, without sorting or stacking (Fig. 2)
. Additionally, low-level radioactive wastes were shipped to the NRTS Burial Ground from universities, hospitals, and research institutions between 1960 and 1963. Exact records of what type of waste went into a specific location are sometimes lacking or vague.
The size of the original solid-waste disposal site was 0.05 km2 (13 acres), but was expanded to 0.4 km2 (97 acres) in 1957. Wastes received by the NRTS Burial Ground were placed in pits and trenches until 1970. After that time, certain transuranic wastes were stored above ground in an interim storage facility. The NRTS Burial Ground grew by another 0.23 km2 (56 acres) to accommodate the interim storage area, which is now called the Transuranic Storage Area. The plan was to move the wastes in the Transuranic Storage Area to a federal repository. In 1976, the NRTS Burial Ground and Transuranic Storage Area was renamed the Radioactive Waste Management Complex (RWMC). Today, the RWMC encompasses 0.69 km2 (168 acres) and consists of the Subsurface Disposal Area (formerly known as the Burial Grounds), the Transuranic Storage Area, and several other waste-processing facilities. An aerial view of the RWMC is shown in Fig. 3
. Recently, the INEEL has completed processing and shipping 3100 m3 of transuranic waste from the RWMC to the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in New Mexico, which is the federal repository. By 2015, 63000 m3 of waste from the RWMC should be shipped to WIPP. Some investigations concerning the RWMC can be found in Humphrey (1979), Ritter and Bhatt (1996), Ibrahim and Morris (1997), and Downs et al. (2002).
View larger version (110K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Fig. 3. Aerial view of the Radioactive Waste Management Complex. The yellow area shows the location of Pit 9.
|
|
Although the RWMC is the major waste disposal facility at the INEEL Site west of Idaho Falls, wastes were also disposed at other locations on the Site. At the Test Area North (Fig. 1), liquid wastes containing low-level radionuclides and high levels of organic solvents (principally trichloroethylene and dichloroethylene) were injected directly into the Snake River Aquifer. The resulting groundwater contamination is now being addressed via several efforts involving bioremediation and monitored natural attenuation (Sorenson et al., 1998, 1999, 2000; Wylie et al., 2002). At the Test Reactor Area, aqueous wastes were discharged to ponds and injected directly into the aquifer through boreholes. The primary contaminants are 3H and Cr. At the ICPP, now known as the Idaho Nuclear Technology and Engineering Center (INTEC) (Fig. 1), liquid waste from nuclear fuel dissolution and reprocessing activities was stored in stainless-steel tanks enclosed in underground concrete vaults. The liquid wastes are extremely radioactive and highly acidic. Fortunately, the tanks have not leaked, but leaks have occurred in the transfer piping, resulting in soil contamination. Low-level liquid wastes were also generated and either disposed to ponds and storage facilities or injected deep into the aquifer from 1952 to 1989 (Kuntz et al., 2002). There are groundwater plumes exceeding the USEPA maximum contaminant level for 3H, 90Sr, and 129I. Technetium-99, 237Np, U, and Pu were also discharged to the aquifer. At the Central Facilities Area (Fig. 1), wastes were placed in landfills and discharged to ponds. The Central Facilities Area serves as an area for operations support (i.e., offices, craft shops, service) and formerly served as an area for Navy personnel housing, warehouse space, and administration. The predominant wastes in the landfills are construction, office, and cafeteria wastes. However, other disposed wastes include chlorinated solvents, miscellaneous chemicals, paints, and oils. Wastes discharged to the pond included Hg, calcine, several forms of nitrates, acids, oils and kerosene, trichloroethylene, and other chemicals. Calcine is a granular material primarily consisting of ZrO, CaO, AlO, and CdO that was generated by a fluidized-bed process to treat liquid wastes. Low levels of As, 137Cs, and U (234U, 235U, and 238U) have been detected in the sediments. Caps (covers) over the landfills and pond have been constructed as a means of limiting infiltration of meteoric water.
Besides the contaminated areas described above, there are numerous other sites where wastes were disposed or discharged, including the burial in place of reactors and their components. A concern at all of the waste sites is the downward migration of contaminants. Throughout the Site, there is only a relatively thin layer of sediments on top of fractured basalt. Some of the wastes were placed within a few meters of or directly on the fractured basalt. The downward migration of contaminants, both in the gaseous and aqueous phases, through the fractured basalt is a major concern. For example, carbon tetrachloride from Rocky Flats has partitioned from the gel-like waste mixture in the barrels to the gas phase and has moved approximately 200 m below the surface, contaminating the aquifer. Besides understanding how the fractures in the basalt and the various sediment interlayers between the basalt flows affect the fate of contaminants as they move downward to the Snake River Aquifer, there are concerns about how the materials buried in the pits and trenches interact and are released into the underlying strata. Because many of the disposed materials are radioactive or present health hazards (chlorinated hydrocarbons), it is very difficult to closely examine and study the behavior of the wastes in the disposal sites. Developing a much better understanding of the source term for groundwater contamination and of the fate of individual contaminants in the highly complex subsurface are major undertakings at the INEEL. Some research papers addressing important aspects of subsurface contamination at the INEEL are Baca et al. (1989), Banaszak et al. (1999), Geller et al. (2000), Liszewski et al. (2003), Luo et al. (2003), and Mincher et al. (2003).
|
CURRENT CLEANUP ACTIVITIES
|
|---|
In May 2002, the USDOE, the Idaho Department of Environmental Quality, and the USEPA signed a letter of intent formalizing an agreement to pursue accelerated risk reduction and cleanup at the INEEL. The vision for this agreement is that "by 2012, the INEEL will have achieved significant risk reduction and will have placed materials in safe storage ready for disposal. By 2020, the INEEL will have completed all active cleanup work with potential to further accelerate cleanup to 2016" (USDOE, 2002). Strategic initiatives outlined in the plan guide cleanup work, and include- Accelerate tank farm closure at INTEC
- Accelerate high-level waste calcine removal from Idaho
- Accelerate consolidation of spent nuclear fuel to the INTEC
- Accelerate off-site shipments of transuranic waste stored at the Transuranic Waste Storage Area
- Accelerate remediation of miscellaneous contaminated areas
- Eliminate on-site treatment and disposal of low-level and mixed low-level waste
- Transfer all DOE's Office of Environmental Management–managed special nuclear material off site
- Remediate buried waste at the RWMC
- Accelerate consolidation of INEEL facilities and reduce footprint
Substantial progress has already been made toward these goals, and the cleanup project is on or ahead of schedule at this time. The Idaho Completion Project maintains open public communications through its web site at http://cleanup.inel.gov/, which the interested reader is encouraged to visit for information on progress.
|
A LOOK FORWARD
|
|---|
Between 1995 and mid 2002, the INEEL was assigned to the DOE's Office of Environmental Management (DOE-EM), which has the prime responsibility to clean up and address legacy waste produced during the Cold War. The INEEL supported DOE-EM by developing capabilities in subsurface research and remediation. Beginning in 2000, the INEEL management began making significant investments of discretionary funds in strengthening this capability, resulting in a Subsurface Science Initiative. New senior scientists were hired and efforts were initiated to build a strong research program that would support remediation programs at INEEL as well as other contaminated DOE sites. However in 2001, with de-emphasis of research activities by DOE-EM in favor of accelerated cleanup at DOE sites and increased emphasis by the administration of President George W. Bush in developing a new generation of nuclear reactors for electrical power generation and hydrogen production, the INEEL was moved to the DOE Office of Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology in June 2003. Idaho has returned to its core mission of nuclear research, technology development, and demonstration. In the near future, the current management contract to administer the INEEL will be divided into two contracts and rebid. One contract will be focused on cleanup of the existing contamination and will be called the Idaho Completion Project, while the other contract will be focused on research and development and will be known as the Idaho National Laboratory. The Idaho National Laboratory will be operated as a USDOE multiprogram national laboratory and will provide support to other programs in DOE-EM, the DOE Office of Science, the Office of Fossil Energy, the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, and the laboratory's new nuclear mission.
|
OVERVIEW OF PAPERS IN THIS SPECIAL ISSUE OF VZJ
|
|---|
Papers in this special issue of the Vadose Zone Journal address some of the current research and understanding of the subsurface and associated contamination issues at the INEEL. Except for some review-type papers, all manuscripts reflect recent work. Prior research work is available in the scientific literature. The following gives a description of the papers that are contained in this special issue. There are three review-type papers discussing the geologic setting, the hydraulic and geochemical setting, and a conceptual model of water movement in the vadose zone. The conceptual model is largely based on prior field studies conducted at the INEEL and long-term monitoring data at the Site. There are three papers addressing water flow through fractures, which are common in the basalt underlying the INEEL. Water recharge to the Snake River Aquifer and associated transport of contaminants is a major issue and focus of research at the INEEL. There are two papers dealing with characterization and monitoring that has application to deep (thick) vadose zones, such as at the INEEL. In one paper, the authors discuss barometric effects on water level measurements and in the other paper, the authors discuss the use of advanced tensiometers. There is a paper surveying advances in geophysical methods for imaging subsurface properties and processes at the INEEL and other USDOE sites. Better geophysical imaging is important for developing effective cleanup strategies at contaminated sites. There are two papers addressing microorganisms in the vadose zone and a paper addressing effects of a management practice of applying brine to unpaved roadways in a waste management complex on subsurface chemical properties. Also related to the waste management complex, there is a paper describing the migration of 14C in a large-scale controlled experiment designed to simulate conditions at the complex. In addition, there are three papers describing modeling approaches to forecast fluid flow and contaminant transport in porous media. One of the papers discusses the need to evaluate conceptual uncertainty before evaluating parametric uncertainty when conducting regulatory-driven modeling. In the paper, the authors assess conceptual uncertainty of several processes for conditions at a major subsurface waste disposal area at the INEEL. The other two modeling papers present approaches that could be used at the INEEL or any other site.
Although none of the cleanup, closure, and future monitoring issues at the INEEL have been fully resolved, the research reported in this issue, as well as other research at the Site reflected in the reference sections of the various papers, form a strong basis of knowledge upon which cleanup and closure are being based. Future research at the INEEL site will continue to challenge the frontiers of environmental science and will contribute to a strengthening of humanity's ability to deal with complex environmental problems in areas throughout the world.
|
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
|
|---|
This work was supported by the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL), principally through the Subsurface Science Initiative. The INEEL is operated for the US Department of Energy (DOE) by Bechtel BWXT Idaho, LLC under DOE's Idaho Operations Office Contract DE-AC07-99ID13727.
|
REFERENCES
|
|---|
- Baca, R.G., J.C. Walton, and R.R. Piscitella. 1989. Modeling contaminant migration from a mixed-waste disposal site: Studies of controlling factors and processes. Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc. 59:102–103.
- Banaszak, J.E., B.E. Rittmann, and D.T. Reed. 1999. Subsurface interactions of actinide species and microorganisms: Implications for the bioremediation of actinide-organic mixtures. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 241:385–435.
- Downs, W.C., C.H. Oh, T. Housley, and J. Sondup. 2002. Gas contaminant mobility at Subsurface Disposal Area. p. 799–805. In B.P. McGrail and G.A. Cragnolino (ed.) Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management XXV. Symposium. Materials Research Society Symp. Proc., Vol. 713. Materials Research Soc., Warrendale, PA.
- Geller, J.T., H.Y. Holman, G. Su, M.E. Conrad, K. Pruess, and J.C. Hunter-Cevera. 2000. Flow dynamics and potential for biodegradation of organic contaminants in fractured rock vadose zones. J. Contam. Hydrol. 43:63–90.
- Humphrey, T.G. 1979. Subsurface migration studies at the Radioactive Waste Management Complex, Idaho. Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc. 33:168–169.
- Ibrahim, S.A., and R.C. Morris. 1997. Distribution of plutonium among soil phases near a Subsurface Disposal Area in southeastern Idaho, USA. J. Radioanal. Nucl Chem. 226(1–2):217–220.
- Kuntz, M.A., S.R. Anderson, D.E. Champion, M.A. Lanphere, and D.J. Grunwald. 2002. Tension cracks, eruptive fissures, dikes, and faults related to late Pleistocene-Holocene basaltic volcanism and implications for the distribution of hydraulic conductivity in the eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho. p. 111–133. In P.K. Link and L.L. Mink (ed.) Geology, hydrologeology, and environmental remediation: Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho. Geological Society of America Special Paper 353. GSA, Boulder, CO.
- Liszewski, M.J., J.J. Rosentreter, K.E. Miller, and R.C. Bartholomay. 2003. Chemical and physical properties affecting strontium distribution coefficients of surficial-sediment samples at the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, Idaho. Environ. Geol. 39:411–426.
- Luo, S.D., T.L. Ku, R. Roback, and T.L. McLing. 2003. In-situ radionuclide transport and preferential groundwater flows at INEEL (Idaho): Decay-series disequilibrium studies. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 64:867–881.
- Mincher, B.J., R.V. Fox, D.C. Cooper, and G.S. Groenewold. 2003. Neptunium and plutonium sorption to Snake River Plain, Idaho soil. Radiochiica Acta 91(7):397–401.
- Ritter, P.D., and R.N. Bhatt. 1996. Tritium release and transport from beryllium in the RWMC soil environment. p. 337–44. In Proceedings of the International Topical Meeting on Nuclear and Hazardous Waste Management. Spectrum '96. Vol. 1., Seattle, WA. 18–23 Aug. 1996. American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, IL.
- Stacy, S.M. 2000. Proving the principle: A history of the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, 1949–1999. Idaho Operation Office of the Department of Energy, Idaho Falls, ID.
- Sorenson, K.S., P. Martian, and R.E. Hinchee. 1998. Potential for natural attenuation of chloroethenes in fractured basalt. p. 299–307. In G.B. Wickramanayake and R.E. Hinchee (ed.) Natural attenuation. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH.
- Sorenson, K.S., L.N. Peterson, and R.L. Ely. 1999. Enhanced reductive dechlorination of TCE in a basalt aquifer. p. 147–155. In A. Lesson and B.C. Alleman (ed.) engineered approaches for in situ bioremediation of chlorinated solvent contamination. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH.
- Sorenson, K.S., L.N. Peterson, R.E. Hinchee, and R.L. Ely. 2000. An evaluation of aerobic trichloroethene attenuation using first-order rate estimation. Biorem. J. 4:337–357.
- USDOE. 2002. Environmental management performance management plan for accelerating cleanup of the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory. DOE/ID-11006. INEEL, Idaho Falls, ID.
- Wylie, A.H., D.R. Ralston, and G.S. Johnson. 2002. Effect of basalt heterogeneity on intrinsic bioremediation processes in groundwater. p. 287–296. In P.K. Link and L.L. Mink (ed.) Geology, hydrologeology, and environmental remediation: Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho. Geological Society of America Special Paper 353. GSA, Boulder, CO.
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
|
|
 
R. J. Lenhard and P. Meakin
Water Behavior in Layered Porous Media with Discrete Flow Channels: Results of a Large-Scale Experiment
Vadose Zone J.,
August 1, 2007;
6(3):
458 - 470.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
Copyright © 2009 by Soil Science Society of America
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
